We notice things already primed in memory or repeated often
Availability heuristic
Your judgments are influenced by what springs most easily to mind.
Example: It is easier to think of words that begin with "K", more than words with "K" as the third letter.
Show on the map · Definition sourceAttentional bias
Attentional bias is the tendency for a person's perception to be affected by selective factors in their attention.
Example: Expecting criticism, you notice one reproach and miss five kind remarks.
Show on the map · Definition sourceIllusory truth effect
The tendency to believe false information to be correct after repeated exposure.
Example: Ten channels repeat the same rumor, making it look independently confirmed.
Show on the map · Definition sourceMere–exposure effect
A psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a liking or disliking for things merely because they are familiar with them.
Example: Of two unfamiliar brands, you prefer the one whose name you have seen before.
Show on the map · Definition sourceContext effect
A context effect is an aspect of cognitive psychology that describes the influence of environmental factors on one's perception of a stimulus.
Example: The same item seems more expensive in a luxury showroom than at a market.
Show on the map · Definition sourceCue–dependent forgetting
Cue-dependent forgetting, or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall information without memory cues.
Example: You cannot name a colleague outside the office, but remember the name at their desk.
Show on the map · Definition sourceMood–congruent memory bias
Memories that match our current mood come to mind more easily. This can color our view of our whole life.
Example: After an argument, other grievances spring to mind while moments of closeness fade into the background.
Show on the map · Definition sourceFrequency illusion
A cognitive bias in which a person notices a specific concept, word, or product more frequently after recently becoming aware of it.
Example: You learn a new word and suddenly seem to encounter it everywhere.
Show on the map · Definition sourceBaader–Meinhof Phenomenon
A cognitive bias in which a person notices a specific concept, word, or product more frequently after recently becoming aware of it.
Example: After choosing a car, it seems that everyone in town drives that model.
Show on the map · Definition sourceEmpathy gap
A breakdown or reduction in empathy (the ability to recognize, understand, and share another's thoughts and feelings) where it might otherwise be expected to occur.
Example: While full, you promise to avoid sweets; when hungry, you change your mind.
Show on the map · Definition sourceOmission bias
People prefer omission (inaction) over commission (action).
Example: You leave a known error unfixed because you fear responsibility for an unsuccessful repair.
Show on the map · Definition sourceBase rate fallacy
People tend to ignore the base rate (e.g., general prevalence) in favor of the information pertaining only to a specific case.
Example: A quiet book lover is assigned a rare occupation without considering how many people have each job.
Show on the map · Definition sourceBizarre, funny, visually striking, or anthropomorphic things stick out more than non-bizarre/unfunny things
Bizarreness effect
Bizarreness effect is the proposed tendency of bizarre material to be better remembered than common material.
Example: A strange advertising character is easier to recall than useful product specifications.
Show on the map · Definition sourceHumor effect
Humor can strengthen attention and recall. A good joke does not establish the truth of its conclusion.
Example: A funny remark about a technology replaces discussion of its actual limitations.
Show on the map · Definition sourceVon Restorff effect
Presented, the stimulus that differs from the rest is more likely to be remembered.
Example: The one task printed in red is the one you remember.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePicture superiority effect
The picture superiority effect refers to the phenomenon in which pictures and images are more likely to be remembered than words.
Example: A striking photograph feels more convincing than a table, although it says nothing about frequency.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSelf–relevance effect
The self-reference effect is a tendency for people to encode information differently depending on whether they are implicated in the information.
Example: One case in your own family seems more persuasive than a large sample.
Show on the map · Definition sourceNegativity bias
You allow negative things to disproportionately influence your thinking.
Example: Character weaknesses were more important than strengths in determining...the ultimate vote.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe notice when something has changed
Anchoring
The first thing you judge influences your judgment of all that follows.
Example: For example, an individual may be more likely to purchase a car if it is placed alongside a more expensive model (the anchor).
Show on the map · Definition sourceConservatism
A bias which refers to the tendency to revise one's belief insufficiently when presented with new evidence.
Example: A forecast fails several times, but confidence in it barely changes.
Show on the map · Definition sourceContrast effect
An evaluation depends on a recent comparison. The same object can seem better or worse after different reference points.
Example: After viewing a very expensive apartment, an ordinary price seems low.
Show on the map · Definition sourceDistinction bias
The tendency to view two options as more distinctive when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.
Example: You spend ages choosing a screen based on a difference you will barely notice at home.
Show on the map · Definition sourceFocusing effect
One salient factor receives too much weight in an overall judgment. Other conditions fade into the background.
Example: You expect moving to guarantee happiness because you think only about the weather.
Show on the map · Definition sourceFraming effect
You allow yourself to be unduly influenced by context and delivery.
Example: “90 out of 100 will keep it” feels different from “10 out of 100 will lose it.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceMoney illusion
In economics, money illusion, or price illusion, is a cognitive bias where money is thought of in nominal, rather than real terms.
Example: A 5% pay rise feels like a gain when prices have risen by 10%.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWeber–Fechner law
Perceived intensity relates to relative changes in a stimulus. This is a psychophysical regularity, not a standalone reasoning error.
Example: A change in brightness is easier to notice against a dark background than a very bright one.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe are drawn to details that confirm our own existing beliefs
Confirmation bias
You favor things that confirm your existing beliefs.
Example: A police detective may identify a suspect early in an investigation, but then may only seek confirming rather than disconfirming evidence.
Show on the map · Definition sourceCongruence bias
Congruence bias is the tendency of people to over-rely on testing their initial hypothesis (the most congruent one) while neglecting to test alternative hypotheses.
Example: You test “all red cards are round” by looking only at round red cards.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePost–purchase rationalization
Choice-supportive bias or post-purchase rationalization is the tendency to retroactively ascribe positive attributes to an option one has selected and/or to demote the forgone options.
Example: After buying an uncomfortable, expensive backpack, you start praising its unusual color.
Show on the map · Definition sourceChoice–supportive bias
Choice-supportive bias or post-purchase rationalization is the tendency to retroactively ascribe positive attributes to an option one has selected and/or to demote the forgone options.
Example: A month later, you remember your chosen candidate as having been better on every measure.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSelective perception
Selective perception is the tendency to not notice and more quickly forget stimuli that cause emotional discomfort and contradict prior beliefs.
Example: Fans of opposing teams judge the same disputed foul differently.
Show on the map · Definition sourceObserver–expectancy effect
The observer-expectancy effect is a form of reactivity in which a researcher's cognitive bias causes them to subconsciously influence the participants of an experiment.
Example: An assessor gives more hints to the group expected to succeed.
Show on the map · Definition sourceExperimenter's bias
The observer-expectancy effect is a form of reactivity in which a researcher's cognitive bias causes them to subconsciously influence the participants of an experiment.
Example: Inconvenient measurements are declared outliers only after the results are inspected.
Show on the map · Definition sourceObserver effect
Observation itself can change behavior or the system being measured. This is an effect in the diagram, not necessarily a cognitive bias.
Example: People sort waste more carefully when they know they are being watched.
Show on the map · Definition sourceExpectation bias
The observer-expectancy effect is a form of reactivity in which a researcher's cognitive bias causes them to subconsciously influence the participants of an experiment.
Example: Knowing a drink's price, a taster finds more virtues in the expensive one.
Show on the map · Definition sourceOstrich effect
Avoiding learning of potentially negative but useful information, to prevent psychological discomfort.
Example: You postpone reading debt notices even as the debt grows.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSubjective validation
People will consider a statement or another piece of information to be correct if it has any personal meaning or significance to them.
Example: A horoscope matches your mood, which you take as evidence that the method is accurate.
Show on the map · Definition sourceContinued influence effect
A debunked message can keep influencing conclusions even when the correction is remembered.
Example: A rumor is retracted, but it still shapes your attitude toward the person.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSemmelweis reflex
The Semmelweis reflex or "Semmelweis effect" is the reflex-like tendency to reject new evidence or new knowledge because it contradicts established norms, beliefs, or paradigms.
Example: A result is dismissed without checking because “that cannot happen in our industry.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe tend to find stories and patterns even when looking at sparse data
Confabulation
Confabulation is a memory error consisting of the production of fabricated, distorted, or misinterpreted memories about oneself or the world.
Example: Unable to remember why you were late, you confidently describe the usual traffic jam.
Show on the map · Definition sourceClustering illusion
The clustering illusion is the tendency to erroneously consider the inevitable "streaks" or "clusters" arising in small samples from random distributions to be non-random.
Example: Several similar events in a row seem to prove a common design.
Show on the map · Definition sourceInsensitivity to sample size
Insensitivity to sample size is a cognitive bias where people estimate the probability of obtaining a sample statistic without considering the sample size.
Example: Three glowing reviews are used to judge the quality of an entire brand.
Show on the map · Definition sourceNeglect of probability
The tendency to disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty.
Example: A terrifying rare scenario controls a decision more than a common, moderate risk.
Show on the map · Definition sourceAnecdotal fallacy
Anecdotal evidence (or anecdata) is evidence based on descriptions and reports of individual, personal experiences, or observations, collected in a non-systematic manner.
Example: “My friend never studied and became successful, so education is useless.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceIllusion of validity
A person overestimates their ability to interpret and predict accurately the outcome when analyzing a set of data.
Example: A pleasant interview makes you certain a candidate will succeed without testing their work skills.
Show on the map · Definition sourceMasked–man fallacy
The false assumption that knowledge or a belief about an object (an intension) can be used to correctly tell it apart from another object.
Example: “I know the writer, but I do not know the anonymous contributor, so they cannot be the same person.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceRecency illusion
Something recently noticed seems recently invented. The start of personal awareness is mistaken for the start of the phenomenon.
Example: You call a word you first heard yesterday a new piece of youth slang.
Show on the map · Definition sourceGambler's fallacy
An independent and equally probable outcome which happened less frequently than expected is more likely to happen in the future (or vice versa).
Example: After five heads, you decide that tails is now “due.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceHot–hand fallacy
The putative tendency for an athlete to have streaks of success higher than their average performance.
Example: After three correct predictions, you feel certain the fourth will also be right.
Show on the map · Definition sourceIllusory correlation
In psychology, illusory correlation is the phenomenon of perceiving a relationship between variables (typically people, events, or behaviors) even when no such relationship exists.
Example: You remember rain after washing the car but never count the dry days.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePareidolia
The tendency for perception to impose a meaningful interpretation on a nebulous stimulus, usually visual.
Example: You see a face in a cloud or hear a familiar word in noise.
Show on the map · Definition sourceAnthropomorphism
Anthropomorphism is the ascribing of human personality, appearance, conduct, cognition, or other attributes to non-human entities, often including non-human animals.
Example: “The computer is deliberately tormenting me,” when the program is simply returning an error.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe fill in characteristics from stereotypes, generalities, and prior histories
Group attribution error
One member's action is generalized to the group, or a group decision is taken as every member's opinion.
Example: A management decision is attributed to every employee of a company.
Show on the map · Definition sourceUltimate attribution error
The ultimate attribution error is an attribution error made when making in-group and out-group attributions, resulting in in-group favoritism.
Example: Our mistake is explained by circumstances; the same mistake by outsiders is blamed on their character.
Show on the map · Definition sourceStereotyping
In social psychology, a stereotype is a generalized belief about a particular category of people.
Example: A candidate's age becomes a substitute for evidence of technical skill.
Show on the map · Definition sourceEssentialism
Essentialism is the view that objects have a set of attributes that are necessary to their identity.
Example: “He comes from that background, so he will never be able to change.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceFunctional fixedness
Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used.
Example: You need a stand but see a box only as packaging.
Show on the map · Definition sourceMoral credential effect
People allow themselves to indulge after doing something positive first.
Example: After making a charitable donation, you excuse rude behavior because you are “a good person overall.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceJust–world hypothesis
Your preference for justice makes you presume it exists.
Example: For example, the assumptions that noble actions will eventually be rewarded and evil actions will eventually be punished fall under this fallacy.
Show on the map · Definition sourceArgument from fallacy
Argument from fallacy is the formal fallacy of analyzing an argument and inferring that, since it contains a fallacy, its conclusion must be false.
Example: A poor argument for exercise is taken to prove that exercise has no value.
Show on the map · Definition sourceAuthority bias
The tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure (unrelated to its content).
Example: A famous actor's technical recommendation is accepted without checking the reasoning.
Show on the map · Definition sourceAutomation bias
The propensity for humans to favor suggestions from automated decision-making systems and to ignore contradictory information made without automation, even if it is correct.
Example: You accept an implausible route because the navigation app suggested it.
Show on the map · Definition sourceBandwagon effect
The bandwagon effect is a psychological phenomenon where people adopt certain behaviors, styles, or attitudes simply because others are doing so.
Example: You support a proposal mainly because most of the group already supports it.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePlacebo effect
Expectations and the treatment context can influence subjective experience or some outcomes. This is not a universal cure or merely a thinking error.
Example: Expected relief changes reported pain under the same physical conditions.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe imagine things and people we're familiar with or fond of as better
Out–group homogeneity bias
The perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members, i.e. "they are alike; we are diverse".
Example: You describe your colleagues as individuals but the neighboring department as all the same.
Show on the map · Definition sourceCross–race effect
The tendency to more easily recognize faces that belong to one's own racial group, or racial groups that one has been in contact with.
Example: A witness struggles to distinguish unfamiliar faces from a rarely encountered group.
Show on the map · Definition sourceIn–group favoritism
You unfairly favor those who belong to your group.
Example: The same idea is welcomed from your own department and dismissed from another.
Show on the map · Definition sourceHalo effect
How much you like someone, or how attractive they are, influences your other judgments of them.
Example: A charismatic speaker automatically seems knowledgeable about every subject.
Show on the map · Definition sourceCheerleader effect
A proposed cognitive bias which causes people to perceive individuals as 1.5–2.0% more attractive in a group than when seen alone.
Example: Someone seems more attractive in a group photograph than in a separate portrait.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePositivity effect
The Pollyanna principle (also called Pollyannaism or positivity bias) is the tendency for people to remember pleasant items more accurately than unpleasant ones.
Example: You mainly remember the kind moments of an otherwise mixed conversation.
Show on the map · Definition sourceNot invented here
Not invented here (NIH) is the tendency to avoid using or buying products, research, standards, or knowledge from external origins.
Example: You reject a suitable library and build your own without assessing the costs.
Show on the map · Definition sourceReactive devaluation
Reactive devaluation is a cognitive bias that occurs when a proposal is devalued if it appears to originate from an antagonist.
Example: A compromise is rejected even though your own side previously supported the same terms.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWell–traveled road effect
Travellers will estimate the time taken to traverse routes differently depending on their familiarity with the route.
Example: A new road feels slow even though the stopwatch shows the same travel time.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe simplify probabilities and numbers to make them easier to think about
Mental accounting
A model of consumer behaviour developed by Richard Thaler that attempts to describe the process whereby people code, categorize and evaluate economic outcomes.
Example: A bonus is easily spent on an impulse purchase while the same amount of salary is saved.
Show on the map · Definition sourceAppeal to probability fallacy
The logical fallacy of taking something for granted because it is possibly the case.
Example: “The system can fail, so this result must be wrong.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceNormalcy bias
Normalcy bias, or normality bias, is a cognitive bias which leads people to disbelieve or minimize threat warnings.
Example: A serious accident warning is ignored because everything has worked out before.
Show on the map · Definition sourceMurphy's Law
Murphy's law is an adage or epigram that is typically stated as: "Anything that can go wrong will go wrong.".
Example: One failed plan becomes proof that “everything always goes wrong.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceZero sum bias
Zero-sum thinking perceives situations as zero-sum games, where one person's gain would be another's loss.
Example: A colleague's success feels like your loss even when the whole team gains opportunities.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSurvivorship bias
Survivorship bias or survivor bias is a statistical error which results from concentrating on entities that passed a selection process over those that did not.
Example: Successful companies' habits are studied without comparing them with failed companies.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSubadditivity effect
The subadditivity effect is the tendency to judge probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts.
Example: Estimated probabilities for separate causes of delay add up to more than the estimate for any delay.
Show on the map · Definition sourceDenomination effect
People may be less likely to spend larger currency denominations than their equivalent value in smaller denominations.
Example: Five small purchases feel easier than one purchase costing the same total.
Show on the map · Definition sourceThe magical number 7 ± 2
A historical estimate of short-term memory span. Capacity depends on the task and grouping; it is not a fixed rule for every interface.
Example: “Every menu must have seven items” is applied without testing the actual task.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe think we know what other people are thinking
Illusion of transparency
The illusion of transparency is a tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which their personal mental state is known by others.
Example: You think everyone notices your nervousness, although most people do not.
Show on the map · Definition sourceCurse of knowledge
Once you understand something you presume it to be obvious to everyone.
Example: For example, in a classroom setting, teachers may struggle if they cannot put themselves in the position of the student.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSpotlight effect
You overestimate how much people notice how you look and act.
Example: A small stain on your shirt seems to attract everyone's attention.
Show on the map · Definition sourceExtrinsic incentive error
Other people's behavior is attributed to external rewards more than one's own behavior is.
Example: You work because the task matters; colleagues supposedly work only for a bonus.
Show on the map · Definition sourceIllusion of external agency
A favorable result of our own choice is attributed to special insight from an outside force or adviser. The original diagram uses a label drawn from a narrower research idea.
Example: You like your chosen item and take that as proof of a chance adviser's wisdom.
Show on the map · Definition sourceIllusion of asymmetric insight
The illusion of asymmetric insight is a cognitive bias whereby people perceive their knowledge of others to surpass other people's knowledge of them.
Example: You believe you can easily read a colleague while insisting that they could never understand your motives.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe project our current mindset and assumptions onto the past and future
Telescoping effect
A phenomenon in which people underestimate the recency of recent events (backward telescoping), and overestimate the recency of distant events (forward telescoping).
Example: You feel sure you changed a password recently, although several years have passed.
Show on the map · Definition sourceRosy retrospection
Rosy retrospection is a proposed psychological phenomenon of recalling the past more positively than it was actually experienced.
Example: A difficult holiday gradually becomes a story about how wonderful everything was.
Show on the map · Definition sourceHindsight bias
The common tendency for people to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they were.
Example: After the result, you say that it was obvious from the start.
Show on the map · Definition sourceOutcome bias
The outcome bias is an error made in evaluating the quality of a decision when the outcome of that decision is already known.
Example: An unjustified risk is called a smart decision because it happened to pay off.
Show on the map · Definition sourceMoral luck
Moral judgment changes with a chance outcome that the person did not fully control.
Example: Two equally careless people are judged differently because only one caused serious consequences.
Show on the map · Definition sourceDeclinism
You remember the past as better than it was, and expect the future to be worse than it will likely be.
Example: “People used to be more honest” is asserted without comparable evidence.
Show on the map · Definition sourceImpact bias
The durability bias, is the tendency for people to overestimate the length or the intensity of future emotional states.
Example: One rejected project seems likely to ruin the entire coming year.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePessimism bias
Pessimism bias is an effect in which people exaggerate the likelihood that negative things will happen to them.
Example: You assume negotiations will fail despite having little objective evidence.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePlanning fallacy
Predictions about how much time will be needed to complete a future task display an optimism bias and underestimate the time needed.
Example: A renovation is again scheduled for two weeks although similar jobs took two months.
Show on the map · Definition sourceTime–saving bias
Time-saving bias is a concept that describes people's tendency to misestimate the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) speed.
Example: You expect the same time saving from increasing speed from 20 to 30 as from 80 to 90 over the same distance.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePro–innovation bias
A belief that innovation should be adopted by the whole society without the need for its alteration.
Example: A new service is introduced without assessing training or compatibility with existing processes.
Show on the map · Definition sourceProjection bias
Projection bias is the tendency to falsely project current preferences onto a future event.
Example: While hungry, you order a supply of food you later do not want.
Show on the map · Definition sourceRestraint bias
Restraint bias is the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control impulsive behavior.
Example: You leave a distracting app open, certain that you will not check it.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSelf–consistency bias
Past beliefs are remembered as more similar to current ones than they actually were.
Example: After changing your position, you say that you have always thought that way.
Show on the map · Definition sourceTo act, we must be confident we can make an impact and feel what we do is important
Overconfidence effect
A person's subjective confidence in their judgments is reliably greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments.
Example: Ten forecasts are called almost certain even though half prove wrong.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSocial desirability bias
A type of response bias that is the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.
Example: A survey respondent exaggerates how many books they have read.
Show on the map · Definition sourceThird–person effect
People tend to perceive that mass media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves.
Example: “Advertising affects the masses, but my purchases are completely independent.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceFalse consensus effect
Overestimate the extent to which other people share their beliefs and views.
Example: “Everyone hates voice messages,” because your friends do.
Show on the map · Definition sourceHard–easy effect
In some tasks, difficulty affects confidence calibration: hard answers are overestimated while easy ones may be underestimated.
Example: In a difficult quiz, you expect nearly every answer to be right despite often guessing.
Show on the map · Definition sourceLake Wobegone effect
The Lake Wobegon effect is a common name for illusory superiority, a natural human tendency to overestimate one's capabilities.
Example: Most participants believe they are better-than-average drivers.
Show on the map · Definition sourceDunning–Kruger effect
A cognitive bias that describes the systematic tendency of people with low ability in a specific area to give overly positive assessments of their ability.
Example: After a brief introduction to a subject, someone overestimates the quality of their solution.
Show on the map · Definition sourceEgocentric bias
Egocentric bias is the tendency to rely too heavily on one's own perspective or to have a higher opinion of oneself than reality.
Example: Each team member thinks they did most of the shared work.
Show on the map · Definition sourceOptimism bias
You overestimate the likelihood of positive outcomes.
Example: No extra time is allowed because “everything will definitely go smoothly for us.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceForer effect
You see personal specifics in vague statements by filling in the gaps.
Example: You have a great need for other people to like and admire you.
Show on the map · Definition sourceBarnum effect
You see personal specifics in vague statements by filling in the gaps.
Example: You have a great need for other people to like and admire you.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSelf–serving bias
You believe your failures are due to external factors, yet you're responsible for your successes.
Example: For example, they claim personal responsibility for successes but not failures in an attempt to influence how others perceive them.
Show on the map · Definition sourceActor–observer bias
Actor–observer asymmetry (also actor–observer bias or actor–observer difference) is a bias one exhibits when forming attributions about the behavior of others or themselves.
Example: Your own lateness is due to traffic; someone else's is due to disorganization.
Show on the map · Definition sourceIllusion of control
The illusion of control is the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control events.
Example: A player believes choosing a ticket personally improves the chance of winning.
Show on the map · Definition sourceIllusory superiority
In social psychology, illusory superiority is a cognitive bias wherein people overestimate their own qualities and abilities compared to others.
Example: You consider your critical thinking much better than other people's without any common test.
Show on the map · Definition sourceFundamental attribution error
You judge others on their character, but yourself on the situation.
Example: A sharp reply is taken as proof of a rude personality without knowing the person's recent stress.
Show on the map · Definition sourceDefensive attribution hypothesis
An observer attributes the causes for a misfortune to minimize their fear of being a victim or a cause in a similar situation.
Example: You search for unusual carelessness in someone else's accident to believe it could never happen to you.
Show on the map · Definition sourceTrait ascription bias
Others are seen as having stable traits, while our own behavior seems more flexible and situational.
Example: You see yourself as “different in different situations” but a colleague as simply “stubborn.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceEffort justification
A person's tendency to attribute the value of an outcome they put effort into achieving as greater than the objective value of the outcome.
Example: A demanding selection process makes a mediocre group feel especially valuable to its members.
Show on the map · Definition sourceRisk compensation
People typically adjust their behavior in response to perceived levels of risk.
Example: After fitting a reliable lock, you check less often whether the door is actually locked.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePeltzman effect
People typically adjust their behavior in response to perceived levels of risk.
Example: A driver with new assistance systems allows themselves more distractions.
Show on the map · Definition sourceTo get things done, we tend to complete things we've invested time and energy in
Sunk cost fallacy
You irrationally cling to things that have already cost you something.
Example: You continue a failing project because you have already spent six months on it.
Show on the map · Definition sourceIrrational escalation
Individuals or groups continue to invest in a chosen course of action despite mounting evidence that the decision is wrong.
Example: After repeated failures, you commit even more resources instead of reassessing the project.
Show on the map · Definition sourceEscalation of commitment
Individuals or groups continue to invest in a chosen course of action despite mounting evidence that the decision is wrong.
Example: A manager defends a failing plan because they publicly promised it would succeed.
Show on the map · Definition sourceGeneration effect
The generation effect is a psychological phenomenon whereby information is better remembered if it is generated from one's own mind rather than simply read.
Example: Solving a problem helps you remember the answer better than reading a finished solution.
Show on the map · Definition sourceLoss aversion
The response to losses is stronger than the response to corresponding gains.
Example: You resist canceling an unneeded service because losing access feels more painful than the savings feel rewarding.
Show on the map · Definition sourceIKEA effect
The IKEA effect is a cognitive bias in which consumers place a disproportionately high value on products they partially created.
Example: Your own assembled object seems more valuable than an equivalent ready-made one.
Show on the map · Definition sourceUnit bias
One offered portion or unit is treated as the appropriate amount even when its size is arbitrary.
Example: You eat one full serving regardless of whether the serving is small or large.
Show on the map · Definition sourceZero–risk bias
Zero-risk bias is a tendency to prefer the complete elimination of risk in a sub-part over alternatives with greater overall risk reduction.
Example: You choose to remove a tiny risk instead of substantially reducing a much larger one.
Show on the map · Definition sourceDisposition effect
The disposition effect is the tendency, or disposition, of investors to sell their winning positions too early and to hold their losing positions too long.
Example: A losing asset is kept solely to wait until its price returns to the purchase price.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePseudocertainty effect
The tendency for people to perceive an outcome as certain while it is actually uncertain in multi-stage decision making.
Example: You select a “guaranteed” second-round prize, forgetting that reaching the second round is uncertain.
Show on the map · Definition sourceProcessing difficulty effect
More effortful, meaningful processing can sometimes improve memory. This does not mean any difficult text is better than a clear one.
Example: Working through a challenging diagram is more memorable than skimming the answer.
Show on the map · Definition sourceEndowment effect
The finding that people are more likely to retain an object they own than acquire that same object when they do not own it.
Example: You ask more for your own mug than you would pay for an identical one owned by someone else.
Show on the map · Definition sourceBackfire effect
A correction can sometimes strengthen a prior belief. The effect is not universal: many corrections successfully reduce misconceptions.
Example: Criticism of a view is experienced as a personal attack and prompts a defensive response.
Show on the map · Definition sourceTo avoid mistakes, we aim to preserve autonomy and group status, and avoid irreversible decisions
System justification
An existing arrangement can seem fair or inevitable partly because it already exists, even when it is personally disadvantageous.
Example: Unequal rules are defended by saying “that is how things work, so that is how they should be.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceReverse psychology
An attempt to prompt behavior by advocating its opposite. This is an influence technique whose effectiveness depends on the person's reaction.
Example: “You probably cannot do it” is used to provoke an attempt.
Show on the map · Definition sourceReactance
You'd rather do the opposite of what someone is trying to make you do.
Example: In turn a "boomerang effect" occurs, in which people choose forbidden alternatives.
Show on the map · Definition sourceDecoy effect
A phenomenon in consumer decision-making in which the inclusion of unattractive third option can change the perceived preference between the other two.
Example: A middle plan costs almost as much as a premium plan but offers much less, making premium seem obvious.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSocial comparison effect
Social comparison bias refers to the tendency to feel dislike or competitiveness toward someone who is perceived as physically, socially, or mentally superior.
Example: You recommend a weaker candidate because a stronger one could compete with you.
Show on the map · Definition sourceStatus quo bias
A status quo bias or default bias is a cognitive bias which results from a preference for the maintenance of one's existing state of affairs.
Example: You keep an unsuitable plan because changing it seems troublesome.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe favor simple–looking options and complete information over complex, ambiguous options
Ambiguity bias
The ambiguity effect is a cognitive tendency where decision making is affected by a lack of information, or "ambiguity".
Example: You choose a familiar lottery over another solely because its odds are known.
Show on the map · Definition sourceInformation bias
Information bias is a cognitive bias to seek information when it does not affect action.
Example: You request another report despite planning to choose the same option whatever it says.
Show on the map · Definition sourceBelief bias
If a conclusion supports your existing beliefs, you'll rationalize anything that supports it.
Example: You agree with the conclusion and miss that it does not follow from the premises.
Show on the map · Definition sourceRhyme–as–reason effect
A cognitive bias where sayings or aphorisms are perceived as more accurate or truthful when they rhyme.
Example: An advertising slogan persuades through its rhythm rather than its evidence.
Show on the map · Definition sourceBike–shedding effect
People within an organization commonly give disproportionate weight to trivial issues.
Example: A meeting spends an hour choosing a button color and barely discusses the architecture.
Show on the map · Definition sourceLaw of Triviality
People within an organization commonly give disproportionate weight to trivial issues.
Example: A major budget is approved quickly while a minor purchase occupies the whole meeting.
Show on the map · Definition sourceConjunction fallacy
Two events occurring together are judged more likely than one alone. Their intersection cannot be more probable than either individual event.
Example: “She is an accountant and an activist” seems more likely than simply “she is an accountant.”
Show on the map · Definition sourceOccam's razor
The problem-solving principle that recommends searching for explanations constructed with the smallest possible set of elements.
Example: You favor the more economical explanation but remain willing to revise it when new evidence appears.
Show on the map · Definition sourceLess–is–better effect
People to favor a lesser option when it is presented separately, but to prefer the better option when both are presented together.
Example: A small intact dinner set is valued above a larger set containing the same intact pieces plus a few broken ones.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe edit and reinforce some memories after the fact
Misattribution of memory
In psychology, the misattribution of memory or source misattribution is the misidentification of the origin of a memory by the person making the memory recall.
Example: You remember a useful phrase as something a friend said, although you read it in an article.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSource confusion
In psychology, the misattribution of memory or source misattribution is the misidentification of the origin of a memory by the person making the memory recall.
Example: Someone else's story begins to feel like an episode from your own life.
Show on the map · Definition sourceCryptomnesia
Cryptomnesia occurs when a forgotten memory returns without it being recognized as such by the subject, who believes it is something new and original.
Example: You invent a tune and later discover that you heard it long ago.
Show on the map · Definition sourceFalse memory
A phenomenon in which someone recalls something that did not actually happen or recalls it differently from the way it actually happened.
Example: You remember putting a key on the table although you only imagined doing it.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSuggestibility
Suggestibility is the quality of being inclined to accept and act on the suggestions of others.
Example: After being asked how fast a car was “racing,” a witness remembers a higher speed.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSpacing effect
The spacing effect demonstrates that learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out.
Example: Words are retained better after several short reviews on different days.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe discard specifics to form generalities
Implicit association
Automatic links between concepts can influence responses without conscious agreement. A single test is not a personal diagnosis.
Example: A job title is linked more quickly with a familiar image than an unfamiliar one.
Show on the map · Definition sourceImplicit stereotypes
An implicit bias or implicit stereotype is the pre-reflective attribution of particular qualities by an individual to a member of some social out group.
Example: The same resume is read with different expectations after its name is changed.
Show on the map · Definition sourceStereotypical bias
Memories about a person can shift toward traits expected of the person's group.
Example: You are certain an engineer made a technical suggestion although it came from a colleague in another profession.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePrejudice
Prejudice can be an affective feeling towards a person based on their perceived social group membership.
Example: You dismiss a candidate based on their background before looking at their work.
Show on the map · Definition sourceNegativity bias
You allow negative things to disproportionately influence your thinking.
Example: Character weaknesses were more important than strengths in determining...the ultimate vote.
Show on the map · Definition sourceFading affect bias
A psychological phenomenon in which memories associated with negative emotions tend to be forgotten more quickly than those associated with positive emotions.
Example: A difficult holiday feels warmer in memory than it did at the time.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe reduce events and lists to their key elements
Peak–end rule
People judge an experience largely based on how they felt at its peak (i.e., its most intense point) and at its end.
Example: A good finale improves your impression of an event despite a long, dull beginning.
Show on the map · Definition sourceLeveling and sharpening
In retelling, some details disappear while others become more pronounced. A story becomes simpler and more vivid but can lose accuracy.
Example: A discussion becomes one harsh remark in the retelling, while its qualifications disappear.
Show on the map · Definition sourceMisinformation effect
The misinformation effect occurs when a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information.
Example: After discussing a photograph, you remember an object that was not in it.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSerial recall effect
Recall items or events in the order in which they occurred.
Example: The first and last items in a dictated sequence are recalled differently from middle items.
Show on the map · Definition sourceList–length effect
Serial-recall ability decreases as the length of the list or sequence increases.
Example: You miss a larger share of items from a long list than from a short one.
Show on the map · Definition sourceDuration neglect
Duration neglect is the psychological observation that people's judgments of the unpleasantness of painful experiences depend very little on the duration of those experiences.
Example: A long unpleasant wait is underrated because it ended with a pleasant episode.
Show on the map · Definition sourceModality effect
How learner performance depends on the presentation mode of studied items.
Example: The end of a spoken list is recalled differently from the end of a visual list.
Show on the map · Definition sourceMemory inhibition
In psychology, memory inhibition is the ability not to remember irrelevant information.
Example: Repeatedly recalling one version makes related alternative details harder to retrieve.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePrimacy effect
Early items or first information can have an advantage in memory and judgment, depending on the conditions.
Example: A first impression of a colleague continues to influence evaluation of their later work.
Show on the map · Definition sourceRecency effect
Recent items or events can have an advantage in memory accessibility. They are not necessarily representative.
Example: A whole year's work is judged mainly by its final week.
Show on the map · Definition sourcePart–set cueing effect
Providing part of a known set can sometimes hinder recall of the rest by disrupting a person's retrieval strategy.
Example: A few suggested names make the rest of a learned list harder to reconstruct.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSerial–position effect
Serial-position effect is the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst.
Example: You remember the first two and final points of ten but miss the middle.
Show on the map · Definition sourceSuffix effect
An unrelated sound or word after a spoken list can reduce the recall advantage for the final items.
Example: An extra word after dictated numbers makes the last number harder to recall.
Show on the map · Definition sourceWe store memories differently based on how they were experienced
Levels–of–processing effect
Deeper levels of processing produce more elaborate and stronger memory than more shallow levels of processing.
Example: Reading is retained better when you connect it with meaningful examples.
Show on the map · Definition sourceAbsent–mindedness
Absent-mindedness is a mental state wherein a person is forgetfully inattentive.
Example: You cannot remember where you put your phone because you were discussing another task.
Show on the map · Definition sourceTesting effect
Long-term memory is increased when part of the learning period is devoted to retrieving information from memory.
Example: Self-testing helps you retain a topic better than another look through your notes.
Show on the map · Definition sourceNext–in–line effect
The next-in-line effect is the phenomenon of people being unable to recall information concerning events immediately preceding their turn to perform.
Example: At an introduction, you cannot remember the name of the person who spoke immediately before you.
Show on the map · Definition sourceGoogle effect
The Google effect, also called digital amnesia, is the tendency to forget information that can be found readily online by using Internet search engines.
Example: You remember the website containing instructions but not the main steps.
Show on the map · Definition sourceTip of the tongue phenomenon
The phenomenon of failing to retrieve a word or term from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent.
Example: You feel sure you know a surname and can give its first letter, but the word will not come.
Show on the map · Definition source
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